Vastupal Vashisth

I do agree with Kavitha, debate is on zero defect achievable or not, we are not thinking about cost involved in this. We can achieve it by motivating and giving training and can always do better and better. Organisation want to delight their customer sometimes cost is not that factor. The brand name, image also valuable in the market of the organisation. We can reduce our water and can do better and deliver best products which actually customer wants to have. Its all about how we are doing interpretation of zero defect.

Zero defect is possible and we can eliminate errors to occur by doing some poka-yoke to deliver good quality products. For example we found that there are chances of getting things wrong, there we can do Poka-yoke to eliminate it. For example sim insert slot in mobile phone. Mobile manufacturing and sim manufacturing company could have produced a different rectangular of arrangement to insert sim, but it will have a problem and maximum probability that we insert sim from wrong direction. But if see current conditions a minor cut is given in two sides and sim can't be insert in any side except this only. So that it eliminates chances of inserting sim in wrong direction although human error will be there but mobile slot will not accept it. So we can eliminate errors to get things right.

I would like to explain Mr Venugoapl that zero defect is a concept which is used in lean manufacturing and continuous improvement or to do any process lean. Already I mentioned that it depends how we are interpreting it, it depends on situation to situation what we are working for. For some people it is customer satisfaction for some it is delivering parts on time, for example if I talk about pizza delivery boy, for him to deliver pizza within 30 minutes will be counted as zero defect, it is different thing that how he is delivering pizza but they are on their words to deliver pizza within 30 minutes, it's upto pizza makers that what type of delivery options they are using. Talking about final output it is also different for different segments. In car Manufacturing industry if they are seeing final product then they can expect the results as I explained above and food industry we can see the taste of pizza how customer is behaving whether he is delighted or not. Although you have prepared pizza with all your standards still customer is not happy then we can not say that they are achieving zero defect. Because for them customer satisfaction also important. And it is not possible to get no defect from a process but it depends how much we want and for how long, as I explained earlier that if I am achieving my targets means zero defect., because my process doing well thats why I am achieving it. For example a production company has a target of producing 500 units per 8 hours and if they are achieving it consistently means they are working on zero defect concept. Zero defects means doing things first time right.

I agree with Ms. Reena And Ms. Kavitha but I would like to add some points to explain more for Mr Venugopal as I am not agree with you because here we are not talking about zero defect in general. We are talking about zero defect in industries, services sector, telecom sector, manufacturers, car manufacturers, vehicle manufacturers and many more. For any organisation business performance and profit making and satisfaction of customer is the main goal. If any organisation has aimed to achieve some financial goal with satisfaction of customer and if they achieve it then we can say that they have zero defects. It depends on how we are interpreting it and where we are applying it. I agree with Ms Kavitha that it involves a lot of cost and previous planning also. If we talk about car Manufacturing industry then here we have different methods to meausre JD Power customer service index, customer satisfaction index and Initial quality study. For example if I give example for Honda City, it has IQS score on first position since last more than 10 years and Honda aims to be number one in IQS study, and Honda is achieving it continously year after year, although they have invested huge to achieve and maintain consistency on first position in its segment, here we can say that Honda is achieving zero defects because Honda aimed to be number one and achieving it also.

FOR I would like to say that zero defect is achievable but it depends on how we are doing its interpretation. Theoretically and practically it is not possible to achieve zero defect. But I would say zero defect means get things right at first time. So we can achieve zero defect. For example if I talk about to finish the project. During finishing of project we have so many steps which are having their own deadlines and conditions. If we are completing all steps in time with all requirements and finish our project on time we can say that there was no defect because whatever has been planned earlier is achieved now. Also lean manufacturing and continous improvement focus on preventive maintainance to reduce and eliminate waste activities so that we can achieve our targets.

ARMI and RACI both are similar and is used as a project management tool. For any project to succeed, communication is must between all concerned people. Without effective communication, no project can be completed and there will be no fruitfully results. Lack of communication leads to failue of any project. While doing a project for team development, there is a need of serious efforts to wars improving communication. Team should have clear statement of the goals and purpose. If the teams or team members have been selected to represent groups or supply technical knowledge, these roles and responsibilities should be announced at the I I tial meeting g. Ongoing communication throughout the duration of project is essential. One powerfully document for facilitating communication is the communication plan. This plan defines who will deliver, what will be communicated, to whom, how often, and by what means. This can include status reports, presentations, newsletter and etc... In other words communication plan must reflect the needs of audience. Communication with the team should take place on a regular basis. All communications with the ream should be open, honest and with no fear. Communication outside the team should also take place on a regular basis. RACI is the effective tool for facilitating communication. RACI stands for responsibility, accountability, consultation, and inform. Responsibility means individuals who actively participates in any activity. More than one individual at a time may be held responsible for the same. Accountability means the individual ultimately accountable for results. Only one individual may be accountable at a time. Consultation tells that individuals who must be consulted before a decision is made. Sometimes we call or it appears as a counselor. Informed states that individual who must be informed about a decision because they are affected Ted and interrelated with it. These individuals do not need to take parts in decisions making process.

Specification limits are the voice of customer. Specification defines the allowable deviation from the target or standard. On the other hand Co trolley limits are voice of process. For any process, specifications limits decides by the customer and we work according to thosd limits, if we found any value going beyond the limits, indicates process is out of control or there is some problem going in process and we start to work on it to come neroli again within specific limits. We find out whether a process is stable or not, capable or not with the help of specification and control limits. If a product us existing I market we can go for specification limits, because we can get it through various methods but if a Company does want to disclose its product into market then the biggest question of deciding specification limits without having voice of customer. Company is making product for customer but does want to open before launch, in this case company has some target for its innovation and they have planned the implementation or application of their product. According to their application of product, company will plan accordingly specification limits of the processes and will check control limits, design team will consider control limits as a part of 6 sigma so that process can be controlled within limuts. SPC study will be done to find out process stability. Process capability will be calculated to find whether process is capable or not. Statically tolerances will be decided for the product and it's manufacturing and assembly both.

A process with 100% rolled throughput yield can be considered as insufficient. Rlooled throughput is a measure of overall quality level. In other words we can say that passing a unit of product or service through all steps without any error or defect in it so that customer does not get any defective product. It is determined by multiplying throughput yields from each subprocess of the total process. We can see multiplicative effect will work against the Ray so it is better to have to first pass yield or FTY of each subprocess as high as possible. Ray is defect sensitive but FTY don't consider it. For example if we see one example we produced 100 componednts in a two step process to deliver to next customer after two processing, so for production line and customer point of view we have given all good quality components to customers and for production yield is 100%but if we see in details the two processes we found that in process one 5% rework was there, after reworking of 5 parts another process taken, there also 5% rework generated so customer got 100 components after working for 110 components. So we add two extra station for rework and manpower to do that. In one way we deliver all 100 components to next customer but at cost of 110 components. So by wasting our resources we produced those components to give defect free components to customer. So this method is not efficient for production as we need to add two station and lot more resource waste to deliver same quantity so if we see above scenario we can say that 100% Rolled throughput yield can be inefficient because we are producing the same number of units after resource wasting and by doing more work. In other words, if we see From above scenario we can see difference as it is process and as is process by looking FTY and RTY, so we can say that rolled throughput yield points out the way where the improvement is needed in our processes so that we do maximum utilisation of resources without any wastage.

The performance in a process improves when people know that they are being observed as per Hawthorne Effect. While the intent in baselining is to judge natural process performance, we end up assessing an improved performance. There is also the opposite effect of performance assessment sometimes. A team may want to show a process to be more complex than it actually is and artificially create poorer than natural performance so that it is easier to showcase improvements later. The effect that can be neutralise in a systematic manner. It seems human tell deny that we start to do work whenever someone is watching. Now it depends on intention of worker what he thinks about the observer. There can be two points, one if he thinks that observer is seeing that how knock on going on, observer will decide grades, promotions, on the study Base then the worker will start work with full capacity under observations because he want a to show them he is the best among all and swing good. On the other hand if he think that by doing study they are going to decide productivity of line, or they will find out nos of manpower extra or not, if such types of thinking comes in his mind then he starts slow down while working because no one wants to loose his job and wants to show them the productivity is less because the process is designed slow moving an dater they start to do work with good capacity so that they can show the difference between situation and tell them that they have improved the productivity but it actually it is biased. The problem with this effect us that it is a short term experiment which leaves a lot of fans behind after study and we reach at the improved productivity or biased result. If we do following then it may help to over one this: One thing we should maje sure that we are taking a long term approach. We are measuring how changes to process impact productivity, so the next step is your extend timeliness of the project do that we can a significance difference. Another thing observer should be discrete while taking observations, don't be biased because it is human tendency that human changes their behaviour or changes heir approach towards work whatever they are doing when they know that they are being observed by someone. Someone wants to show their best, wants to appear good while someone wants to set a low benchmark level of targets. It depends on the intention and thinking, so he discrete while deciding about the performance of an individual. The another key point to overcome this if you communicate properly from the beginning why you are doing good this and what is in it and how this is going to benefit them. What is your intention behind observation and experiment. Then you will definitely find an actual refelection Of the worker while working at workplace and you can judge the process in true manner about productivity and behaviour of worker. These three key points will help more or less to overcome hawthorne effect and improve process output.

Coefficient of variation is the ratio of standard deviation and the mean. It can be applied to any kind of quantitative distribution. Lesser the cv is better one. Its main use to compare relative risk. We can use in investment and finance . the main advantage of cover is that it is unit less. This quality of unit less makes it different an more useful tha standard deviation analysis. It can help demonstrate when distributions are considred low variance and when they are considered high variance. In in eland finance Coventry can be used to evaluate risk where we should invest money. Cover is better indicator of relative risk particularly among different level of risk of different securities. For example we are thinking to invest money in two stocks A and B, which are having different return suppose Stock A has expected return of 20% and stock B has expected return of 15 %. Now we are confused which is better.. Let's see standard deviation. Stock has SD of 10% and stock B has 5%. So COV of stock B is less(5/15) isess than Coventry of stock A (10/20). Lesser the COV is better, so we will prefer to invest in stock B. Other use of Coventry is in relative theory, queuing theory, Reliability theory, exponential distribution, in biological labs and in measure of economic inequality etc...

FMEA is a very important tool to identify risk, it has a lot of advantages and benefits. It identifies important hazards in a system. FMEA is used a top down and bottom up approach. FMEA calalculate RPN number stands for risk priority number which is calculated by multiplication of three factors named severity, occurrence, and detection. Each one assigned a value between one to ten. Major limitation of fmea is this multiplication because this ranking may result in ranking reversal. Possibilities are there a less failure mode gets a more RPN and on the other hand a more failure mode gets a lower RPN number. So it is very difficult to prioritise the all on which we need to work. Because highest RPN number will give you lower failure mode on the other ha d we are ignoring which is having less RPN but potential of major failure mode. The reason behind this because we are giving ranking with the ordinal scales that is from one to ten which is normal scale. The ordinal ranking only tell us that which ranking is more or less worse but not tell by how much. So this is major limitation of fmea although various manipulation are there to resolve this.

Customer relationship management is nothing but it's managing all of company relation and I traction with customers a d potential customer. It is a type of system which helps companies to stay connected with their customers and streamline there processes and make profitability. People when talking g about CRM, mean they are talking about a system or a tool that helps with contact the management, sales management, productivity and much more. Solution of this system will focus on everyone and make relation of company with Individual whether it is customer, supplier, service people, it makes relation with them all throughout your lifecycle. This system helps to find new customers, winning their business and providing support and additional services throughout relationship. It works fine E with sales, customer service, Business development, recruitment, marketing and any other pine of business for a company. It is a better way to interact with all and maintain relation with all to succeed. CRM as a tools helps you and your company to store customer information, record service issue, manage marketing campaigns, all at a single place. And make it possible that everyone gets the information. Every one in the company is able to see Information about customer, what they bought, when they bought, their experiences with the product. It is very beneficial to small businesses. Although CRM system have been used as sales and marketing tools, service team are seeing great benefits in using them. Today's customer can raise an one gannet social like on twitter, then email or then phone to resolve privately. This system manage enquiry at one platforms across all channels without losing track.

Lead time and cycle time are two important matrices in lean and process improvement. Many people are confused between them and don't understand difference between them. It may lead to confusion in understanding the actual problems in the process and decisions in process improvement . let us see one by one, cycle time and lead time. Cycle time is the time required to complete one unit from the beginning of the process to the end of the process. The average cycle time is computed o error the completion of multiple units and thus cycles. If the cycle is greater than the take time, the customer demand will not be met without a modification to the process. Lead time starts when the request is placed and ends at the delivery. Lead time is the time that customer see for how long he has to wait for delivery. If lead time is more it can cause dissatisfaction in customers. Cycle time is more Mechanical measure of process capability on the other hand lead time is what the customer sees. Lead time depends on cycle time and also on customer patience a d his readiness for delivery. On the other hand if we think in another way lead time measures the arrival rate but cycle time measure the completion rate. For example, a customer goes to a car showroom to buy a car and he ordered there for one car. Now customer will get a expected delivery date of the car, customer will wait for that and let's say after 30 days he gets the car time. So this 30 days time will be called as a lead time although it does not mean that company is producing cars in 30 days, cycle time of the company will be different. In thus 30 days is the lead time that for how long a customer wait for his car to be dilelivered. But if lead time increases drastically, it can crate dissatisfaction in customer and customer may go for another option. For example, maruti suzuki new swift desire, when people ordered the car they got expected delivery date of 2 to 6 months. Now the question comes, is the company cycle time more or demand has been increased, in this case demand increased so it's it's upto customer patience whether he will wait for six months to have new swift dezire or will go for another company car. So this is what lead time is that a customer wait for his product to deliver after raising the request. Another example from online shopping, whenever any customer places a order on any website like flipkart, Amazon, snapdeal, myntra etc, the customer will get a expected delivery time of 2 to 3 business days, this 2 to 3 business days is called as lead time. A car Manufacturing company has so many department and one department need some to have steel coil for processing the further process and you know unless until you koi get steel coils from suppliers you can not start the next process. Company knows that after giving request for a specific coil for a specific part of a car, supplier needs 15 days time to deliver so 15 days will be lead time for that coil. From now company will order in advance of 15 days as lead time is 15 days so that shortage will not be there in any circumstances and end product that is car can be produced on time for delivery to customer. So 15 days is the lead time for steel coil to be delivered to company from supplier. If we see example of cycle time in manufacturing industry, it will tell how much time we are taking to complete a process from start to end. For example a machining shop, engine parts are getting machined and worker at station one, starts one part at 10 am for machining at stage one and after processing through all four machines automatically, the next worker at a station two gets the final machined part at 11:30 am. So it took around 1.5 hour for that particular part to be machined, so 1.5 hour will be cycle time for that part. All parts, Processes will have different cycle time due to part profile, design of process. Cycle time is different from takt time, takt time is what a complete assembled product comes out from assembly line. For example in bike and car manufacturering company if we see a complete bike comes out in just 52 to 60 seconds but it does not mean that bike has been assemeled in this short home of one minute, it is take time that in all three shifts how many bikes can be produced. Same case with car Manufacturing company, a complete car comes out within 90 to 106 seconds, it is also take time that how many cars we are producing in a day, take time is different from lead or cycle time.

I would like to support option B and option option E for the long running process. For such a long process which is manual, we should avoid slogan and rigid targets because after sometime these slogans and targets display only for advertising and there will be no meaning to display them. Because no one else takes seriously on line unless some action taken to achieve zero defects. I think if workforce is involved in improvement themes, goal setting they can do wonders as they have ability to do the same the thing they need is motivation, coaching, mentoring and training to achieve the same. We should use both top down and bottom up direction. Means we emphasise building confidence among employees to take initiative. So we are equipping workforce with technical understanding of the machines they use giving them skills to make improvements to processes, address problem and prevent them. Before they develop. This approach of bottom. Up requires management and managers to step back and trust and empower their people and workforce to step up to the responsibility of their own efficiency. This approach is also encapsulated with the disciplines of TPM that it incorporates. TPM provides the frame work for ambitious structured programmes of coaching, feedback, team work and training at all levels in organisation. It also focus on finding g local bottom up approach improvements to individual production lines. TPM succeed because of the mentality of the workforce. There are few quick wins to above approach but it has been seen that over multi year periods the same team using the same Equipments, same machines can achieve huge reductions in the amount of time lost to idle machinery an din loss of resources and ingredients through waste if they start to feed properly, well trained, well mentored and motivated. For example in a production line of press shop parts, some parts need to hang in one side of trolley and then trolley turned by forklifter and then again parts piled in the trolley, so by doing this trolley has a capacity of occupying 120 parts only but it is time consuming and resource wasting because forklifter movement was involved in that and waiting time for workforce during that time. Now what workforce has done there who are working, they thought about a solution for the problem, they made a part jig of some height which is removable and can place anywhere and find out bin type trolley where they can place that jig and can pile parts on the jug. Now because of that jig, this one trolley consumes 240 parts which increased productivity of line, reduced forklifter unnecessary movement, reduced delivery cycle because now need to deliver only one trolley against a lot of 240. Before there was need to deliver two trolleys for smooth production in next section. So many wasteful activities reduced by making only that one jig for that part. The power of bottom up approach h is the operator is the expert. By adopting this the results will remarkable. Because the same people when equipped with the skills and confidence to anticipate and resolve problems and empowered to find and find inefficiencies in the running of the machine slashed waste and inefficiency across measurement reducing wastage, minor stops and cleaning time and cutting breakdown. So it is good to involve them and motivate them. Have some prize for achieving great results, decide benchmarks and do prize distribution monthly. By doing this we will find some people who will work out of their zone to achieve better and better an d think out of box and all these activities will make motivation and involvement of people throughout. On the other hand if we see any organisation establishes long term goals and objectives and the action necessary to achieve them. Strategic planning is the fundamental to the success of any organisation. It provides direction and unifies the organisation and it's workforce with a common focus. There are various methods and processes used to accomplish enterprise wide strategic planning. These includes SWOT, PEST analysis, HOSHIN KANRI. HOSHIN KANRI, a Japanese term is a bottom up, top down, systematic and structured strategic planning process that engages all levels of the organisation while creating measurable and aligned goals that imbue the concept of continuous improvement through use of the plan-do-chevk-act cycle. Its all about organizational alignment. It creates both vertical and horizontal alignment, thus establishing focus throughout the entire organization. HOSHIN KANRI also includes SWOT AND POST analysis which helps to provide both internal and external perspective. Also customer, employee, and shareholder is specifically sought. So by involving all, it is necessary to prioritise the strategies also which helps issues later when strategies are assigned human resources and funding. So workforce insolvent should be there. Suppose in a car Manufacturing company there are various processes in long run, I'd we talk about assembly line only, then there are at least 70 station where different parts are assembled to complete a full car. So workforce working there manually are well aware about pros and cons of the situation. There is need to identify all rights parts and ensure right parts assemble in right variant, right model of a car. As well as they need to take care for the speed of line which is output that how many cars assembled in a shift. If we put slogans there online, and tell them rigid targets then it is not going to workout. We should motivate them, coach and train them and upgrade their skill in a very systematic structured way. And need to build trust on them as they should be able to identify breakdown points, what to be done and take necessary countermeasure themselves to Improvement and achieve goals and targets of the organisation.

Fishbone diagram also known as ishikawa diagram created by a Japanese quality poineer named ishikawa. It is closest translation in factor and effect analysis. In other words we can say that is is cause and effect analysis. In which effect is at extreme right side and cause are in left side divided like bones of fish and then sub divided into many more factors which relates to effect or problem. Effect is the problem that we want to solve. Where we don't know causes we need three things one is specific topic, another is verification or prioritisation an d third one is brainstorming which is quality vs quantity. Fishbone diagram is used to identify root cause of a problem. We can use it for chronic problems only. For sporadic problem we should use why why analysis to find out root cause. In manufacturing industry we use normally 5 M and one E, for service industry 4 pm. There are different factor so which are categorised then we do find out potential cause by brainstorming and interrelate all with defined category and so we find out a relation between all and reach a root cause which is affecting the problem. It may be possible that one potential cause relates to two category like lack of training relates to manpower and in machine knowledge also. So we need to do carefully all analysis and find out root cause by discussing. There are several ways by which fishbone diagram is misused. We do fishbone analysis of any problem or any sporadic problem which is not relevant because for that we can do why why analysis. We start to fishbone by focusing on quality idea but we should focus on quality of potential causes. For this team size should be from 5 to 7 people to diversify and it should be cross functional team so that we can have potential cause from all. Another way to missuse of this that we start without involving all team members and start to write without discuss with all. No one agrees on anything in the team.we start to finish d out relationship between causes without listing down all. We should first list down all, then do categorise and find root cause. People start to ride on others idea that is wrong. People tries to evaluate or censor ideas before end of session. Normally we should avoid all these because by doing all we can use fishbone properly and misuse of fishbone will not give fruitful result.

The purpose of segmentation is to cut down the number of suspected process steps or sub components within a system involved in problem creation. Successful segmentation will narrow down the investigation to fewer models by cutting out process steps, system or components that are not involved in creating the problem. The effort in segmentation is to find don't and learn data items that can differentiate between segments by telling if the problem source is there or not there. Narrow down the number of suspect process steps into fewer or even to one process steps that caused the problem. For example if a defect is caught at final stage of vehicle like water leakage then by back tracking all process steps one one by one, we reach at a conclusion that the part from which die is producing, problem in die profile itself that's why water leaked is there because it disturbs the part profile or in other words we can say that if once for d the suspected process step then all subsequent process step are no longer suspect. In segmentation natural groups are already exist and we are trying to isolate the problem by breaking it into smaller a d smaller segments so that we can find out root cause of the problem exactly. Segmentation breaks down the data I to smaller groups. It helps to find out root cause more precisely because it is very tedious job to collect data throughly and get something from it. So segmentation can be done in three categories 1 industry 2 Company 3. Individual From three categories we have total 9 segmentation variables which segments the whole data for further analysis to find out root cause. And all these are related to rca to gather data in a systematic manner and to do analysis in a systematic way to provide proper solution. Following are the segmentation variables: 1. INDUSTRY has three variable A. SIZE B SUBSTITUTE C. SALES CYCLE 2. COMPANY also has three variable A. Purcahse B. Process C. People 3. INDIVIDUAL also has three varibale A. Disposition B. Demeanor C. Demographic

Cost of quality includes any cost that would not be expanded if quality were perfect. This includes such obvious costs as scrap and rework, but it also includes less obvious costs such as the cost to replace defective material, the staff and equipment to process the replacement order. Specifically, quality costs are a measure of the cost associated with the achievement or non achievement of product or service quality. This include market specifications, end - product and process specification, purchase order, engineering drawing, company procedure, operating instructions. There are total four types of cost of quality: 1. Prevention Cost: Costs incurred to prevent the occurrence of non conformances in the future such as following: a: Marketing research b: Customer/user perception surveys/clinics c: Contrack Review d: Design quality progress review e: Field tests f: Service design qualification g: Supplier reviews h: supplier rating i:Supplier quality planning j:Operations(manufacturing or service) k: Quality adminstration 2. Appraisal Costs: Costs incurred in measuring and controlling current production to ensure conformance to requirement, such as: a: Measurement equipment b: Qualification of supplier product c: Source inspection and control program d:Checking labor e: Product audits f: Inspection and test materials g: Process control measurements h: Laborartory support i: Measurment equipment Maintenance and clibration labor 3. Internal Failure Cost: Costs genrated before a product is shipped as a result of non conformance to requirements, such as: a: Product/design failure costs b: Purchasing failure costs c: Disposition costs d: Rework e: Repair f: Extra operation g: Rework of suplier rejects 4. External Failure costs: Costs generated after a product is shipped as a result of non conformance to requirements such as: a: Complaint investgation b:return goods c: Retrofit costs d: Recall costs g:Warrenty claims h:Liability costs i:Penalties j:Lost sales h:Customer goodwill There is a need to strike an equilibrium between these costs. Approach to reach the best scenario: For most organization, quality costs are hidden costs. Unmeasured quality costs tend to increase. Poor quality impacts companies in two ways; higher costs and lower customer satisfaction. The lower customer satisfaction creates price pressure and lost sales, which result in lower revenues. the combination of higher cost and lower revenue eventually brings on a crisis that may threaten the very existence of the company. Rigorous cost of quality measurement is one technique for preventing such a crisis from occurring. As a rule, quality costs increase as the detection point moves further up the production and distribution chain.The lowest cost is generally obtained when errors are prevented in the first place. If non conformance occurs it is generally least expensive to detect them as soon as possible after their occurance. Beyond this there is loss incurred from additional work that may be lost. The most expensive quality costs are from nonconformance detected by customers. in addition to replacement or repair loss, a company losses customer goodwill and reputation is damaged when customer relates his experience to others. Quality cost measurement need not be accurate to the peny to be effective. The purpose of measuring these costs is to provide broad guidelines for management decisions, making them and take an action. The very nature of cost of quality makes such accuracy impossible. It will be only possible to obtain periodic rough estimates of such costs as customer goodwill. These can be obtained using special audits, statistical sampling and other market studies. They need not be obtained every month. Annual studies are usually sufficient to indicate trends in these measures.

Every hypothesis test uses samples to interfere properties of a population on the basis of an analysis of the sampling information. Therefore, there is some chance that although the analysis is flawless, the conclusion may be incorrect. These sampling errors are not errors in usual sense, because they can't be corrected. There are two types of error Type 1 and type 2 Error. When we reject null hypothesis when it is true that's is type 1 Error and it is producer risk. When we fail to reject null hypothesis when it is false, then type 2 Error occurs and it is consumers risk. To ensure that hypothesis tests are carried out portered, it is useful to have a well defined process for conducting them. 1specify the parameters to be used. 2.state the null and alternate hypothesis. 3.state alpha value 4determone test statistic 5. Define Rejection criteria 6.compute critical values and test statistics 7.state conclusion for the test. Null hypothesis for one situation can be same as alternate hypothesis of another situation. It depends how we are considering the situations. If null statement of one situation is used as alternative of another situation it will also reverse the definition of type 1 and type 2 Error. We need to think more carefully about which hypothesis is more appropriate and situation before finalise the statement for null and alternate hypothesis. The null and alternate both are mutually exclusive so wee need to take care while finalise the statement according to situation For example We are saying when we are standing o earth our eyes are able to see that earth is flat surface so in this case null hypothesis is that earth is flat when we are seeing while standing on a surface and alternate hypothesis is that earth is not flat when we are seeing while standing on a surface. Now another situation that we are saying earth is not flat when we are seeing from space. In this case null hypothesis is while seeing from space earth is not flat and alternate hypothesis is while seeing from space earth is flat. Another example of the same that sun is revolving round the earth as day change to night. In this example null is sun revolvs around earth as day change to night. Alternate hypothesis is that sun does not revolve round earth. If we say as day change to night it means earth is revolving around its own axis. In this null is as earth revolvs around duty own axis that's why day change to night. Alternatee is earth does revolves around its own axis. Another example of student passing an exam >=40. Null hypothesis is passing exam with 40 Alternate is it should be greater than 40 to excel in exam. Null says no difference before and after in terms of grades calculated on the other hand Alternate says there is a difference.Now in this case, passing exam is acceptable but greater than Benchmark set is also acceptable. Null can be used as alternate in this situation If we have to consider that null is equal to and alternate is less than or not equal to or greater than. Another example is of average salary of an engineer in a company is =>50000 per month. So there are various situation where we can use null of one situation as alternate hypothesis of another situation but wee need to think carefully while deciding the statement.

Both DMAIC and 8D are structured and step by step problem solving methods although DMAIC given by MOTOROLA and 8 D given by Ford. As name suggests 8D problem solving approach has 8 steps and DMAIC has five steps to solve the problem. 8D has following steps: D0 is prepare and plan for 8D. D1: Form a team D2: Describe the problem D3:Interim Containment Action D4:RCA and escape point D5: permanent corrective action D6:implement and validate permanent countermeasure action D7: prevent reoccurence D8:closure and team celebration On the other hand DMAIC has define, measure, analyse, improve and control. In some situations I would like to go for 8D over DMAIC because 8D problem solving is a detailed, team oriented approach to solving critical problems I the production process. It is design to find out root cause of the problem devise a short term fix and implement a long term solution to prevent reoccurring problems. When it is clear that our products is defective give and is not going to satisfy customer, an 8D is an excellent step to improve quality and reliability. There are various situations where 8D is applicable, as it is reactive approach that tends to only surface when correcting a problem that has already occurred. In this type of situation where problem has already occurs we will not go by DMAIC as it is time consuming by DMAIC and lengthy and we can resolve it by 8 D directly in very simple steps. On the other hand DMAIC is continous effort based not only on current and known but identify all sources of variation that are significance to cost and Quality and for future prospects of the organisation to sustain in the market. Because 8D problem solving works only defects so we will go with this in case of defects because it has already occurred and reached to customer and we can do control by doing this but on the other hand in case of variation data set, projects about future plans 8D is not good to go, there we should go by DMAIC because it uses statistical tool in a very precise and controlled way to identifying all circumstances to sustain in the market. So situations where once a problem area is identified to work on, we should prefer 8D as it had a tendency to be more focused and narrowed because it is usually very effective problem solving tool where we need focus on some particular issue. In some situations we should not use 8d because it does provide a swt of statistical tools and an order in which to apply them as DMAIC does so well. DMAIC really wraps a tight methodology and discipline around it. It provides a more disciplined management approach to prioritise and solve the project with all methodology and tools. For example a steel company is supplying steel coil to car manufacturers and car Manufacturing company found some defect at steel level so at that time steel company can resolve it by doing 8D method rather than doing DMAIC because problem already happened and can be controlled by identifying all details related to coil and it's processing history in the plant and taking permanent countermeasure after identifying root cause and close the matter but on the other hand DMAIC is continous effort and in this case no need to do Dmaic beause of time frame and less data available. There are situation where we should not go for 8D because biggest downside of 8D is it step 3 implement and verify interim containment which gives you a false sense that the problem is solved and you can go for the next problem. It is quick and dirty band-aid approach to addressing the symptoms of a problem not the root cause. It means to stop only bleeding g, then it's upto team to complete the rest of 8D steps including remove bandaid after found out root cause. But the reality is we don't know how serious enough a business problem is so we can not go by 8D here, solve it by using Dmaic. So we can go for 8D problem solving process in case of safety or regulatory issues, when customer complaints are recieved, and warranty concerns are greater than expected one and internal rejects, waste, scarp.

The c charts are statistical tools used to evaluate the number of occurrences per unit produced by a process. The c chart can be applied to any variable where the appropriate performance measure is a count of how often a particular event occurs and samples of constant size are used. The c chart answer the questions has a special cause of variation caused the central tendency of this process to produce an abnormally large or small number of occurrences over the Tim emerged observed. Not that unlike p or np charts, c charts do not involve counting physical items. Rather they involve counting of events. Like all control charts c charts also consist of three guideline centreline, a lower control limit, a upper control limit. The centreline is the average number of occurrence per unit and two control limits are set at plus and minus three standard deviation. If the process is in statistical control then virtually all subgroup occurrences per unit should be between the control limits and they should fluctuate about the centre line randomly. If lower control limit is not there then central tendency predictions will not be possible because it derived from ucl and lcl both. Absence of lol is of no means g of central tendency and stability of process by c chart. Eg in a plant chance of injuries are there, it can go maximum any level in number but it can't go beyond zero so it's lcl will be zero any how but it will be there while calculation because injuries can't be negative.

Motorola has determined after years of of study of process and data that process vary and drift over a period of time and they call it as long term dynamic mean variation. Its value varies between 1.4 to 1.6 When we calculate sigma level and standard deviation after improvment of a process through dmaic methodology, we consider data over a period of months not for years which is short term data. Short term data contain 's only common cause variation on the other hand long term data contain common as well as special cause variation both. Because of this short term data is of higher process capability than long term. This drift in between long term and short term is 1.5. In o e way while calculating short term. Sigma level we are considering only common cause. Over a period of time probability of increasing of special cause variation increase and we ignore it in calculation in short term data.

An outlier is any value that is different from normal data set. Need to identify is there because it shows the changed behaviour of process at that particular set or particular value, we can expect some different some cause happened for changed behaviour of process. For example, a machine is producing 20000 parts daily with a rejection of 10-20, mean under Rejection target of 0.3% of the total number of parts. We tracked the process for 30 days continuous and we found that on one day Rejection was of 100 parts if we see the behaviour of the process, these particular days is showing some different scenario than other days and something happened that's why rejection increased on that particular day. We can do why-why analysis and find d out the root cause for the same. So it is necessary to identify outlier in the process to check whether it is affecting actually or no more affect the process. It depends upon methods that we are adopting or the source of the outlier. Sources of an outlier: There are several source of outlier happening in a process: 1. Measurement error. 2. Experimental error 3. Human error 4. Sampling error 5. Error due to intention We can ignore once in a while measurement or experimental error but if error has occurred due to pure chance of a process then we should koi avoid it. We should go for countermeasure and consider it. Methods to identify outlier in a data set or in a process: There are several methods to identify outlier in any data set or in any process: 1. Box plot 2.Scatter plot 3. Histogram 4. Control charts

Yes a mature process is there, it's like maturation of anything else similar to that. For example a human being is mature thoroughly lifespan if we see the life cycle from birth to death. Many stages comes like physical, mental like that. If we see a baby, that also mature in a 9 month span after that baby birth possible so same case goes with manufacturing and other companies. As I am from car Manufacturing so will explain you by a example. For example we have a process to reduce parts on machine through dies., whenever any new model going to come, it's trial starts and it's dies goes through many stages, many trial to get the desired specific results or product as per specification so die is going through stages for maturation but the quantity and Quality of parts are affected while these stages, when finally quality of parts achieved as per standard then finally die handover to production department for mass production. The real problem starts from here because initially very few parts were made to achieve quality parts, now thousands of parts you are going to produce. So die maturation or process maturation totally depends on how many parts are you producing and what is your straight pass means how many parts are passed without handwork in other word first time yield and how much Rejection is there. If over a period of time production department is capable to maintain the output withing standard with defined straight pass and Rejection target then we can say that process is matured enough or dies are matured now because parts producing from dies are meeting quality parameters with achieving all targets of rejection and straight pass. So possibility are there to modify process or redesign the process but still significance of mature process is there. Because we have history card of the same process how it behaves in all situations and Wear and tear will be there while running on line and Improvement will be there to achieve the quality products but having all points in mind the behaviour of process, dies we can go for modification and again check the parts quality whether meeting standard or not and check our targets of rejection and straight pass. If it meets all criteria over a period of time again we can say that process is matured but we done some improvement, continuous improvement to maintain the quality as per defined standard and defined target.

Voice of customer defines the specification limits. In some cases customers provide specifications for products or services explicitly. This is the case of defense or any military operation. In others cases customer express requirements in value terms, the Compone the that I fluency the buy decision such as price, product quality, innovation, service quality, company image. In some other case customer mat spotlight only their needs and wants thus leaving upto to the organisation to translate them into internal specification. Which is voice of business. It depends on organizational how it takes voice of customer. First organizational has to find d out customers which is internal as well as external. Now company has to see its future plans, vision, mission, competitor, all factors including budget on the projects also. Organisation has to fulfill customer needs anyhow not necessarily fulfill of wants of customer which is endless. It depends on organisation that how much it is forcing on customer wants which will give delight them and build a faith in the company. Organisation has to some project or sell product in market for which customer wants to pay for it anyhow. For eg customer wants a fuel efficient car in the mid range, if he gets such thing he will be satisfied by the company although you are charging more for the technology but customer wants to pay for it. It depends whether organisation is going to convert all their needs and wants to requirement, depending on budget, competitor if organization doing like this the there will be big problem for the organisation in future because in same amount you can't give all because customer wants can be endless. Organisation needs to gather customer data by survey feedback and all and convert their needs and wants into requirements by QFD, KANO ANALYSIS, SIPOC. VOC AND VOB conflicts each other eg a end customer is buying a car wants some features like it should be automatic driven, automatic open, as temperature set automatically and fuel efficient, luxurious also then he has to pay more but if he wants it in only 10 Lakh which is impossible to give by a company and if a company does like this then it has no future because all the time you can't see customer wants you have to see you future to sustain yourself. Give only that is must to give, rest is delighted. If you are manufacturers of cars then need to give seat belt, safety, efficient, driving comfortable, tyres, fuel tank all are must to run a car but if you give warranty with free service for some thousands of kilometers, free check up, insurance, it adds value to customers a d customer will be more happy more satisfied. Voc and VOB conflicts where organisation starts to focus on customer wants rather than their needs. For example a customer wants to buy a air conditioner, is need is to cool down temperature but it should be noiseless, small in size, efficient less power consumption all are his wants do organisation has to focus on customer wants and needs while converting them to requirements.

Lean operation principles are derived from the lean manufactring practices. This is very effective strategy first developed by Toyota. The key focus of lean is to identify and eliminate wasteful actions that don't add value to customers in the manufactoring process. The concept of lean describe any process developed to a goal of near 100% value added with very few waste steps. Waste is defined by president of Toyota what a waste is 'anything other than the minimum amount of equipment, materials, parts, and worker time which are absolutely necessary to add value to the product.' there are 7types of waste defined but nowadays days 8th waste also taken into consideration which is identified as non utilisation of human talent. Whatever activities we are doing in our business undertakes a large proportion will create waste which is hidden or we don't try to see it at all. This concepts applies whether your process is office based, or in manufacturing company or in any Ware house. In office lit of paper work is there, need to do fax, photocopy, post and we waste all rather than this if we send all details by scanning game or email then it will save all paper work, space for keeping all files, manpower waiting time, there was the of processing, cost of stamp, post all these we can save by doing electronic mail to the concerned person. Same case applies to manufacturing process, our aim is to add values to a product that the customer will g to pay for it. While doing so, there are other tasks that must be done but don't add value which is called waste. Waste is defined in terms of value because it is relative to customer needs. So we need to identify all these waste in office as well as in manufacturing sector. This concept of lean, identifying and eliminate 7waste is a continuous improvement project and we need to identify while applying to the process's. First way to apply the concept identify all wastefully activities in the system. We begin to investigate the value adding steps and cycle time in the process through a VALUE STREAM. MAPPING PROCESS. Another way to apply this concept in the organisation is to STANDARD WORK. Standard work is a term used in lena production. Standard work is work in which the sequence of job elements has been efficiently organised and is repeatedly followed by a team member. This will reduce process variation and improves performance. Now we will se one by one the ways to applying to reduce the waste of all types. 1.Defects Switch to quality assurance from quality control efforts. Put all efforts to process right rather than I spectrum the results. For eg I'm manufating company while on welding line, there is fault coming In robot axis while welding and it welds the parts at wrong position and causing defect to next process, so here rather than to focus on inspection of defective part we should do more focus on to rectify problem of robot axis while welding so that it will not generate any defect. 2. Overproduction Thus is also waste, can be controlled by way to move from long setup of die on machines to SINGLE MINUTE DIE Exchange or do JIT. To do preventive maintenance on time schedule so that problem will not come or repeat on line. 3.Waiting Time that is not being g used effectively, Force on why machines and operators are under utilised. Why there is too long process to sign from a authorised person who is not available there in office. 4.Movement Time a machine operator waste walking around in order to get a spanner for some work. This is waste as nothing define at its place. For eg on press machine some problem occurred while production in die so rather than to go to tool room for taking files, hammer, spanner again and again we can put all tool in a trolley near by machine so that time will not waste while unnecessary movement. Same case applies to office work also. So we review SPAGHETTI DIAGRAM where is the exact location of all and what is defined in the system and Improve the system if any abnormalities found. 5.Transportaion Moving items between area, building is a type of waste if all stations, building are part form each other. For eg press shop suppling parts to weld shop, if both are part from each other then there is need of more manpower, vehicles, lifters, pallets, bins so all this waste. It will be good to have location of all should be near to work station for fruitfully usage. 6 INVENTORY In manufacturing industry having excess inventory is waste because need of all pallets, space, bin and cost of handling rework increase . so lower the inventory by doing process study and consumer. Tin of parts in next step. 7.overprocessing Identify unnecessary steps while finishing the work and take c/m to remove all those steps and make it as simple as we can.